right amygdala, decreased blood flow to Broca's area in the left temporal lobe
Sympathetic nervous system activation
Autonomic hyperresponsiveness to both neutral and trauma-related stimuli
Elevated urinary catecholamine levels
Downregulation of beta- and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors
Increased reactivity to the alpha-2 antagonist, yohimbine
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical mobilization
Lower urinary cortisol levels
Elevated lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor levels
Dexamethasone supersuppression
Other theories of causation
Acoustic startle-response
Shorter latency and increased amplitude of the acoustic-startle-eyeblink reflex
Significant loss of the normal inhibitory modulation of the startle reflex
Resistance to habituation of the startle response
Fear conditioning
Appraisal
DSM-IV-TR
The person experienced or witnessed an event that involved death or serious injury, or the threat of death or serious injury; response to the event involved intense fear, horror, or a sense of helplessness
Relived experiences of the event, such as having distressing images and memories, upsetting dreams, flashbacks, or physical reactions
DSM-IV-TR Cont'd
Persistent avoidance of situations or things that remind the person of the traumatic event or feeling of emotional numbness
Feeling as if constantly on guard or alert for signs of danger, which may cause difficulty sleeping or concentrating
Symptoms last longer than one month
Acute: duration less than 3 months
Chronic: duration 3 months or more
Delayed: onset of symptoms is at least 6 months after stress
Course of PTSD
Signs and symptoms typically begin within three months of a traumatic event
May be delayed for more than six months or even years later
Severity and duration varies
Symptoms may come and go?may have more symptoms during times of higher stress
Some people recover within six months, others may not do so for much longer
Longitudinal Course
PTSD can persist for decades
Symptoms may worsen rather than improve over time
Approximately 40% of patients with lifetime PTSD are unlikely to recover whether or not they have ever received treatment
Series of remissions and relapses
Some people able to lead productive and fulfilling lives; others may develop a persistent incapacitating mental illness
Prognosis of PTSD
Best prognosis depends on how soon the symptoms develop after the trauma, and on early diagnosis and treatment
Some individuals who do not receive care recover over a period of years
More than 1/3 of patients never fully recover
Rarely, individuals may have worsening symptoms and kill themselves
Consequences of PTSD
Physiological outcomes
Physical complaints
Depression
Other anxiety disorders
Conduct disorders
Dissociation
Eating disorders
Consequences of PTSD Cont'd
Social outcomes
Interpersonal problems
Low self-esteem
Alcohol and substance use
Employment problems
Homelessness
Trouble with the law
Consequences of PTSD Cont'd
Self-destructive behaviors
Substance abuse
Suicidal attempts
Risky sexual behaviors leading to unplanned pregnancy or STD's, including HIV
Reckless driving
Self-injury
Treatment
Three major approaches
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Pharmacotherapy
Individual and group dynamic psychotherapy
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
The most successful treatment for PTSD
Consists of exposure therapy and anxiety management strategies
May be provided in individual or group therapy
Pharmacotherapy
No particular drug is a definitive treatment, although medication is clearly useful for symptom relief
Antidepressants most commonly used
Anti-adrenergic agents
Anticonvulsants
Management: Medications
Dissociative flashbacks or intrusive memories
Propranolol (Inderal) 10-20 mg PO qid prn
Blocks stimulation of beta-1 (myocardial) and beta-2 (pulmonary, vascular, and uterine) adrenergic receptor sites
SE: fatigue, weakness, arrhythmias, bradycardia, CHF
Must monitor blood pressure and pulse, I & O
Management: Medications Cont'd
Nightmares of trauma
Cyproheptadine (Periactin) 4 mg PO qhs
Blocks the effects of serotonin
SE: drowsiness, blurred vision, dry mouth
Assess for adverse anticholinergic effects
Benzodiazepines prn at bedtime
Management: Medications Cont'd
Hallucinations of the trauma
Olanzapine (Zyprexa) 2... displayed 300 characters
Custom written essay
All essays are written from scratch by professional writers according to your instructions and delivered to your email on time. Prices start from $10.99/page
Your research paper is written by certified writers
Your requirements and targets are always met
You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Get a price guote
M., (2006) Culturally relevant mental health nursing: a global perspective. Wilhelm, T. and Ferguson, J. (Eds.). Foundations of psychiatric mental health nursing a clinical approach (pp. 230,236,245,646-647). St. Louis: Elsevier Inc.
Friedman, M.A., acnp.org. Post-traumatic stress disorder. Retrieved July 6, 2007, from http://www... displayed 300 characters
